The Problems with Coastal Erosion.

Olivia Peters

December 9, 2013

The Problems with Coastal Erosion.

When you go to the beach, what do you see? The obvious things are white sandy coastlines, crystal clear water, tons of people playing around, and even some animals, such as fish and birds. However, there is a problem many do not see. More than 75 percent of the world’s beaches are suffering from coastal erosion. “Coastal erosion is the process of wearing away material from a coastal profile due to imbalance in the supply and export of material from a certain section.” (Marchland. 2007) Coastal erosion can be caused by numerous things but is mainly influenced by hurricanes, transport gradients, loss of sand, protruding areas, marine deposit shorelines, downstream erosion, sea level rise, subsidence, and natural variance. Coastal erosion is not an occurrence limited to the United States. States such as Massachusetts, Florida, and Rhode Island are certainly affected, but so are North and West Africa, the United Kingdom, England, and Indonesia. Because most homes and property are located on coastlines, humans have taken many measures to control coastal erosion. These include beach nourishment, bulkheads, groynes, geotextile tubes, and gabions. Coastal erosion doesn’t just affect our homes though. Marine life, such as sea turtles and grunion are also suffering. The world’s economy is also being affected. Because of coastal erosion, fewer people are traveling to coastal towns, and that is directly impacting their tourism-related economies.  Unfortunately, man-made interventions to coastal erosion often present more problems than they were initially thought to solve.

In order to understand the coastal erosion process, you must distinguish the factors that interact with each other along the shoreline. On a geological time scale, coastal evolution in sedimentary environments is dictated by the supply and demand of the sediments. The supply is determined by the availability of the sand and the transport ability of water and wind. The demand of the coast is determined by the rate of sea level rise and the geology of the coastal plain. As stated previously, coastal erosion is the process of wearing away material from a coastal plain due to the imbalance in the supply and export of material from a certain section. “It takes place in the form of scouring in the foot of the cliffs or dunes or at the subtidal foreshore. Coastal erosion takes place mainly during strong winds, high waves and high tides and storm surge conditions, and results in coastline retreat and loss of land.” (Marchland. 2007.) Coastal erosion become a problem when there is no room to harbor change.

Sandy beaches provide a natural barrier between ocean and land, but because the sand is so lightweight and weak, the beaches change and move through the actions of waves, winds, and currents. There are many causes of beach erosion. Some are hurricanes, transport gradients, loss of sand, protruding areas, marine deposit shorelines, downstream erosion, sea level rise, subsidence, and natural variance. When a hurricane comes in, especially one with speeds up to or exceeding 111 miles per hour, it changes the component of the beach; the beach is thrown into total chaos (Sallenger.) Dunes are the first defense mechanism against storms on the beach. Because we place so many structures on the beachfront, the dunes are weakened, making them less resilient. When a normal storm comes, the beaches reform themselves to accommodate the change in atmosphere. When a hurricane, tsunami, or typhoon arrives, with speeds doubling those of a regular storm, the beaches are unable to cope.

Transport gradients increase erosion by moving the gradients in the direction of the net transport. This can be due to gradients in the wave conditions at certain stretches, particular bathymetric conditions, or a curved coastline.

Loss of sand, while seeming redundant, is also a major contributor to coastal erosion. Breaching and over washing is the loss of sand inland due to “failure of the beach head allowing flooding by tidal action.” (Marine Biodiversity Wiki. 2008.) The coast also loses copious amounts of sand during extreme storm surge and wave conditions. The storm surges cause offshore movement of sand due to an unbalanced equilibrium in the coast’s geology. The strong waves cause the sand bars to move towards the sea. Also, if there is a canyon close to a transport coastline, sand may travel into the canyon and be lost from the beach.

Coastal erosion also occurs when material is lost from a protruding area. It mostly happens when sandstone headlands at the tip of deltas do not receive enough material from the river due to natural shifting of river alignment.

Erosion is also caused when marine deposits are suspended between sections of semi-hard protruding coastlines. The shape of these shorelines is dependent on the presence of semi-hard sections and wave climate.

Beach erosion also occurs downstream of accumulative forms. Along a coastline with oblique wave approaches, the tendency is for the sand spit formation to travel parallel to the coast. The sand shifts offshore, which causes the downstream coastline to erode.

As global sea levels rise, erosion increases. “An increasing sea level will cause shoreline setback, which is approximately equal to the sea level rise divided by the slope of the active coastal profile, when considering equilibrium profiles. (Marine Biodiversity Wiki. 2008.)”

Subsidence is another cause of beach erosion. Subsidence lowers the surface of the sand. It can be caused by natural measures such as the settling of soft sediments, tectonic activity, or it can be caused by humans when we engage in invasive occupations such as drilling for oil or populating the coast with structures. Subsidence acts the same way as sea level rise. Unlike sea level rise, however, which is a gradual and slow process, subsidence may occur rapidly.

Natural variation in the supply of sand can also cause coastal erosion. Droughts in river basins can result in long periods of decreasing sand on the shore (Marine Biodiversity Wiki. 2008.)

With beach erosion quickly becoming a dangerous consequence of life on earth, people have been studying it and searching for a way to prevent it. Some preventative measures include beach renourishment, bulkheads (also known as retaining walls), groynes, geotextile tubes, and gabions.

“Beach renourishment is the process of dumping or pumping sand from elsewhere onto an eroding shoreline to create a new beach or to widen the existing beach.” While renourishment doesn’t stop erosion, it slows down the process. The waves erode the nourished sand instead of houses or roads. Renourishment is often suggested when beach erosion threatens to remove an existing beach and potentially harm the property beyond it. The renourishment process will only function if it is publicly funded, as it is somewhat costly and will need to be replaced. There are many advantages with renourishment. It widens and restores recreational beaches, the structures behind the beach are protected, and it is a lot safer than other methods like bulkheads and gabions in that there are no permanent hazards left on the beach or within surf zone. There are some drawbacks, though. Beach nourishment sand actually erodes faster than the natural sand. It is also very expensive, usually costing a few million dollars. Because it has to be replenished, the price can escalate up to over 100 million dollars. Nourishment turns the beach into a construction zone, making it unable to be used. The sand added to the beach is almost always different from the original sand and because of the difference, it can change the surf conditions and bars on the beach. The most detrimental consequence of nourishment is the nourished sand can damage and hurt marine life and the beach itself. The bulldozers carrying the sand can crush organisms, the sand can bury marine life, it can change the shape of the beach, and even make the water too muddy. This can harm the habitats of organisms such as plants, insects, turtles, and birds. (Beach Nourishment Basics)

Bulkheads are also a common practice for controlling beach erosion. Most commonly referred to as an armoring wall, a bulkhead is a manmade structure constructed along shorelines that acts as a barrier against waves. These walls actually cause more damages to the beaches, though. When waves reflect off the bulkheads, they scour away sediments and cause the erosion to increase. When long stretches of beach are lined with bulkheads, the beaches that are composed of fine sediments can erode to just gravel within a few decades. Bulkheads also shut off the supply of sand and gravel to the beach, causing the beach to lose its finer sediments. When bulkheads are built, overhanging shrubs and trees are often removed. This can endanger marine life, reduce organic matter, and increase siltation. It also reduces shade and shelter along the beach, reducing the spawning habitat (Schlender.)

A groyne is another popular way to control beach erosion. “A groyne is an active structure extending from shore into sea.” It catches and traps parts of sediment that are moving into the surf zone. Groynes are frequently used, however, they do have unfavorable effects. Because the protection of only one groyne is insignificant, they are usually designed in groups. Between the groynes, large masses of water accumulate, causing erosion of the seabed (Pruzak.)

“The geotextile tube technology is mainly used for flood and water control, but they are also used to prevent beach erosion, and for shore protection and environmental applications.” Because these tubes are cost effective and easy to install, they are good alternatives to hydraulic and coastal structures. They are most commonly used with a barrier and are placed under the wall to help stabilize it (Shin. 2007.)

Gabions are another alternative to controlling beach erosion. They are wire mesh baskets filled with crushed rock. However they are flexible, they can absorb partial wave and wind energy, reducing scouring problems. However, they are not durable enough to withstand regular direct wave action, so they are restricted to the upper part of the beaches. This placement provides protection from backshore erosion. Gabions need to be repaired often to make them viable to make them something more than just a short term solution. They can also become dangerous if not properly repaired. If the cobbles (crushed rock) are released from a broken gabion, then it can accelerate damage to local baskets. They also disrupt the natural landform, modify dune habitats, and can result in dune face scour at the ends (Brampton, Motyka, Coates. 2000.)

Because coastal erosion is such a widespread problem, people all over the world are affected by it. In the United Sates, coastal erosion affects, but is not limited to, Massachusetts, Florida, and Rhode Island. It also affects other countries such as, North and West Africa, Norfolk, Suffolk, England, and Indonesia.

Massachusetts is becoming a major erosion zone. The southwest shore of Nantucket is eroding at a rate of 10 to 12 feet per year. We begin to grasp the scope of what 10 to 12 feet per year looks like when comparing it to Humarock Beach, which had an erosion rate of only two feet per year in 1950 to 1998. In Massachusetts’ case though, long term erosion is not the sole issue. For instance, Springhill beach in Sandwich has huge episodic, storm-induced erosion, which results in major losses of homes near the shore (Focal Points. 2001).

In cases like Florida, you may have a beautiful beachfront property but no beach. Most of the soil in Florida is a sand and limestone mixture. Because these materials are not compact, they easily erode. Out of the 1,240 kilometers of beach, approximately 195 kilometers have already been eroded. Florida’s dunes are the only major defense against storms because they act as a barrier between the storm waves and coastal development. Even with these natural barriers, the coast has still undergone massive coastal erosion. This has resulted in narrowing beaches that are uninhabitable for public use. In 1992, reports produced by the Florida Department of Natural Resources classified 65 percent of west Florida beaches as “critical erosion areas.” Because of this, many beaches have established nourishment projects. In 1992, Congress instructed the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to participate in a 5-year study of west coast Florida’s barrier island. This was to help them understand the geological history of the barrier island, specifically the process of carrying sediments on the inner shelf. The west coast barrier island sits near a gentle sloping carbonate platform. Its bottom consists of a limestone bedrock, with quartz and carbonate lying on top. Limestone is an easily erodible sediment. The USGS also discovered that the sediments aren’t evenly distributed along the continental shelf. There are only certain areas of an adequate thickness to withstand or resist erosion while the less populated sediments are more prone to erosion (U.S. Department of the Interior).

In 1938, Sakonnet Point was the most seaward point in Rhode Island, hosting large sand dunes that stood up to 4.6 meters high. Today, they are almost completely submerged under a high tide due to major storms and sea level rise (Coastal Erosion).

In the northwest coast of Africa, the average rate of erosion is between one to two meters per year. Locally, however, rates of up to hundreds of meters per year have been observed, especially when man is trying to prevent it. In West Africa, erosion has been strikingly detrimental to their living. They have problems with salinization of water and soil, depletion of ecosystems, and massive flooding. This has been adverse to their gross domestic product, since most of their income comes from fishing, tourism, and commerce (Barbiere. 2012).

Happisburg in Norfolk, is on the coast of the North Sea. It was small village, home to about 600 houses, and was actually quite a distance from the sea. Records show that over 250 meters of land were eroded between 1600 and 1850. The town is mainly affected by massive flooding, which accounts for most of its eroding. Coastal erosion prevention has been put into place, and even succeeded in controlling the problem, but is now in need of repair because it is no longer performing its job correctly. This town’s tourism rate is directly affected by its beaches, and because these beaches are eroding, tourism has significantly dropped (Coastal Erosion at Happisburg, Norfolk).

“The Suffolk coastline of East Anglia has been eroding for 1000's of years and suffers rapid and frequent change- the changes are due to the coastal process of erosion and deposition and the large scale movement of material down the coast by longshore drift.” Dunwich is a small village on the coast of Suffolk. While once a thriving port, storms, floods, and coastal erosion have almost destroyed the little town. Its coastlines are made up of soft rock (a mixture of sand, gravel, and clay) that make it highly erodible. It also suffers from a narrow beach, and its cliff faces are greatly affected by weathering. In 1990, seven meters were demolished over just a few days by a storm that hit the coast. Dunwich is one of the most extreme examples of how coastal erosion can affect a town (Chambers. 2007).

The Holderness coastline on the east coast of England, near the Humber Estuary, is the “fastest eroding” coastline in Europe because of its soft clay cliffs and strong waves. In this case, artificial measures to try and keep the erosion at bay have only sped up the process because they starve the beach of its sand making it more vulnerable (SA.)

Indonesia also battles coastal erosion. Denpasar City has lost 62 percent of its shorelines in the last 20 years. That is equivalent to 10 of its 16 kilometers of shoreline. Along with Granyar Regency, their population’s main sources of income are primarily dependent on their exotic beaches. These destinations are quite attractive to the rich Indonesians that want beachfront properties to avoid the chaos of inner city life (Suriyani. 2010.)

Not only does beach erosion affect our homes and lives, it also has a direct correlation to sea turtle population. It is not just the erosion that affects the turtles. Another major contributor to the sea turtle problem is our man-made structural attempts to prevent the coastal erosion. “What many do not realize is that these man-made structures prevent sea turtles from continuing their innate life cycles.” The construction of sea walls, for instance, interferes with sea turtle nesting because they change the shape of the beach. These coastal structures threaten sea turtles by reducing nesting habitat locations and forcing them to nest in dangerous areas. “Although armoring is intended to decrease sand erosion and, therefore protect the beach, studies show that areas protected by armoring are more likely to create more severe erosion by interrupting natural sand shifts.” So while our human habitats are being protected, the sea turtles’ are not. Studies have proven that fewer turtles crawl onto beaches with beach erosion protection, and the fewer turtles that do crawl near the sea walls often return to the water without nesting. This is known as a false crawl. Because they do not nest, the sea turtle population decreases. Beach nourishment also causes a huge problem with sea turtle nesting. Because the nourished sand has a different consistency than natural beaches, the beach becomes unsuitable for nesting. The nourished sand is unusable because it is too compact for animals to nest in (Information about Sea Turtles: Threats from Coastal Armoring. 2013).

            Grunion are another example of marine life affected by coastal erosion. Grunion spawning occurs from March through August, with it peaking in May. They leave the water and spawn on the beaches. For four nights, beginning on full moons, spawning occurs after high tides and last for several hours. The female has to twist her body and dig into the sand until she is half buried. She then deposits her eggs, and then the male comes to release his milt. When coastal erosion prevention happens, such as armoring walls or nourishment, it increases the difficulty for the grunion to spawn. The armoring walls prevent the fish from finding the perfect location, and the nourishment makes it almost impossible for the females to dig their holes because the sand is too compact, just like with the sea turtles. In the rare occurrence that the eggs are released, and the eggs hatch, the nourished sand makes it harder for the newly hatched grunion to swim back to the ocean (California Grunion Facts and Runs).

            Because most of the population of this world lives on some sort of coastline, beach erosion plays a huge part in how we live. Not only does it affect our homes, but it effects our economic status and way of life as well. In the United States alone, approximately 350,000 structures are located within 500 feet of coastline. Most likely, about 87,000 of these structures will erode into the ocean or Great Lakes in the next 60 years. Based on current coastal property loss estimates, during this period, coastal property owners will pay an average of 530 million dollars per year in erosion related damages (Focal Points. 2001).That’s almost 32 billion dollars just in erosion related damages. In addition to that, the Federal Government spends about 150 million dollars every year on shoreline erosion control, just as beach renourishment. A Heinz Center study discovered that erosion may claim one out of every four houses that lie within 500 feet of the shoreline by 2050 (Rabenold. 2013.)

In Ghana, spending money on beach erosion prevention would be costly, but it would actually strengthen the economy. Since most of Ghana’s income comes from tourism, industry, and fishing, fixing the erosion problem would improve these sources of income. The beaches would be more populated because they would be in better condition, and the fishing would be better because the fish could go back to their semi natural habitat (Sea Defense and Erosion Project, Ghana).    

            Texas has some of the highest beach erosion rates in the country. 64 percent of the Texas coast is eroding at an average rate of six feet per year while some locations lose up to 30 feet per year. Because of this erosion, Texas property values decrease, tourism suffers, homes are sometimes lost, and the local economies suffer the consequences (Pinchback).

            California also has beach erosion problems that affect its economy. Since California is mainly coast, their tourist traffic is always high. According to an economic analysis performed by California Research Bureau for the Resource Agency, California’s tourism contributed 9.9 billion dollars to the state’s economy in 1992. In 1995, the California Department of Boating and Waterways estimated that Californians spent 3.4 billion dollars on day trips to the beach in a single year (http://resources.ca.gov/ocean/97Agenda/Chap5Erosion.html). Tourism rates, however, have fallen due to the recent coastal erosion problems. This is because the eroded beaches are almost always under construction. The unsightly armoring walls and gabions scattering the beaches detract from a peaceful vacation.

            While initially proposing to prevent and correct shoreline erosion, the reality is that the solutions cause more problems. As the examples have shown, every nation that has employed interventions for coastal erosion ended up hastening the coastal erosion process, encroaching on nature, and thereby further endangering their own economies. In light of what I have discovered in preparing this paper, I find it to be the best interest of nature and man to allow the coastal erosion process take its natural course.  

“When He established the heavens, I was there,
When He inscribed a circle on the face of the deep,
When He made firm the skies above,
When the springs of the deep became fixed,
 When He set for the sea its boundary
So that the water would not transgress His command,
When He marked out the foundations of the earth;
Then I was beside Him, as a master workman;
And I was daily His delight,
Rejoicing always before Him,” (Proverbs 8:27-30)

Works Cited

Barber, Don. "BEACH NOURISHMENT BASICS." Beach Nourishment Info. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. <http://www.brynmawr.edu/geology/geomorph/beachnourishmentinfo.html>.

Barbiere, Julian. "Coastal Erosion Major Threat to West Africa | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization." Coastal Erosion Major Threat to West Africa | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. N.p., 30 Jan. 2012. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/coastal_erosion_major_threat_to_west_africa/>.

Brampton, Alan, Dr., George Motyka, and Tom Coates. "A Guide to Managing Coastal Erosion in Beach/dune Systems." A Guide to Managing Coastal Erosion in Beach/dune Systems. N.p., Oct. 2000. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.snh.org.uk/publications/on-line/heritagemanagement/erosion/appendix_1.8.shtml>.

California, Department of Fish and Wildlife. "California Grunion Facts and Runs." California Grunion Facts and Runs. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.dfg.ca.gov/marine/grunionschedule.asp>.

Chamber of Commerce, National Black. "Sea Defense and Erosion Projects, Ghana." Sea Defense and Erosion Projects, Ghana. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.nationalbcc.org/resources/contracting/1299-sea-defense-and-erosion-projects-ghana>.

Chambers, Mr. "GeoBytesGCSE." : Case Study of Coastal Erosion. N.p., 20 Aug. 2007. Web. 07 Dec. 2013. <http://geobytesgcse.blogspot.com/2007/08/case-study-of-coastal-erosion-dunwich.html>.

Concervancy, Sea Turtle. "Information About Sea Turtles: Threats from Coastal Armoring." Sea Turtle Concervancy. N.p., 2013. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.conserveturtles.org/seaturtleinformation.php?page=seawalls>.

Marchland, M., Dr. "CONSCIENCE." CONSCIENCE. N.p., 2007. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.conscience-eu.net/what_is_coastal_erosion_and_when_is_it_a_problem/index.htm>.

"Marine Biodiversity Wiki." Natural Causes of Coastal Erosion -. N.p., Dec. 2008. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. <http://www.marbef.org/wiki/Natural_causes_of_coastal_erosion>.

N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://resources.ca.gov/ocean/97Agenda/Chap5Erosion.html>.

Pinchback, Jason. "Coastal Erosion." Coastal Erosion. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.glo.texas.gov/what-we-do/caring-for-the-coast/coastal-erosion/>.

Program, Woods Hole Sea Grant. "Focal Points." : Woods Hole Sea Grant. N.p., Aug. 2001. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.whoi.edu/seagrant/page.do?pid=51817>.

"Proverbs 8:27-30." New American Standard Bible. La Habra, CA: Foundation Publications, for the Lockman Foundation, 1971. N. pag. Print.

Pruszak, Zbigniew. "Groynes." - Kust Wiki. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.vliz.be/wiki/Groynes>.

Rabenold, Christa. "Coastal Hazards." NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management :. N.p., 25 Mar. 2013. Web. 04 Dec. 2013. <http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/hazards.html>.

SA, CC BY. "Coastal Erosion." Coastal Erosion. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Coastal_erosion.html>.

Sallenger, Abby. "Hurricane Impacts on the Coastal Environment." - USGS Fact Sheet. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/hurricane-impacts/>.

Schlender, Tim. "Puget Sound Shorelines: Building - Bulkheads and Effects." Puget Sound Shorelines: Building - Bulkheads and Effects. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/sea/pugetsound/building/bulkhead_eff.html>.

Shin, E. C. "Coastal Erosion Prevention by Geotextile Tube Technology." Coastal Erosion Prevention by Geotextile Tube Technology. N.p., Sept.-Oct. 2007. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0266114407000295>.

Solutions, Center For Ocean. "Coastal Erosion." Climate Change. N.p., n.d. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. <http://centerforoceansolutions.org/climate/impacts/cumulative-impacts/coastal-erosion/>.

Suriyani, Luh De. "Tourism Regions Suffer Worst Coastal Erosion." Home. N.p., 15 Nov. 2010. Web. 06 Dec. 2013. <http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/11/15/tourism-regions-suffer-worst-coastal-erosion.html>.

Survey, British Geological. "Coastal Erosion at Happisburgh, Norfolk." Coastal Erosion at Happisburgh. N.p., n.d. Web. 06 Dec. 2013.

Tenenbaum, David. "Disappearing Beaches." Disappearing Beaches. N.p., 1999. Web. 06 Dec. 2013.

U.S., Department of the Interior. "West-Central Florida Coastal Studies Project." Limited Sand Resource for Eroding Beaches -. N.p., May 2013. Web. 05 Dec. 2013. <http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/wfla/factsheet/>.

Geometric Probability of Mating Success in the Domestic Cat.

Title
Using geometric probability to compare the random and actual mating success of the domestic cat, Felis Catus.

Author
Olivia Peters

Abstract
The domestic cat, Felis Catus, is a member of the wild feline family, but is tamed down to live in city areas and around people. In this study, I calculated the random probability of mating success and compared it to the actual mating success for the domestic cat. The random probability of mating success was estimated to be .8%. The actual probability of mating success in the domestic cat increases to 100% after the male has persuaded the female to mate. Once a male has rightfully courted his female, he will insert his barbed penis into her cloaca, therefore inseminating her.

Introduction
The domestic cat is comparatively small compared to its relative, the lion or panther. It is furry and gentle. It is also carnivorous. Cats’ increased sense of smell, sight, and sound also make it the ultimate hunter. Cats hear frequencies that humans cannot, making it easy for them to hunt mice and other small prey. Cats are also are nocturnal creatures and have excellent night vision. The domestic cat has the same anatomy as its relatives and are quick and strong with a flexible bodies. They are also equipped with sharp reflexes, retractable claws, and razor-like teeth, therefore enabling them to hunting. Cats are also very social. They have a whole range of vocalizations including, meowing, purring, hissing, and growling, and secrete cat pheromones which signal that they’re ready to mate. Lastly, domestic cats have rapid breeding rates. Cats go into heat and mate a few times a year. In this study, I used geometric probability to compare the random mating success with the actual mating success of the domestic cat.

Method
Theoretically, random mating means taking 100 darts and throwing them at the body of a female domestic cat. The question is, what would be the chance of hitting her cloaca, the bull’s eye? The random mating success was calculated using two geometric figures, a square and circle (See Fig. 1). The surface area of the female’s body was defined using a square, which covered her entire backside. The bull’s eye is defined as a circle where the male will deposit his sperm using his barbed penis (Fig.2.) Random mating success was calculated as the surface area of the cloaca divided by the surface area of the female’s body that the male sees.

Results
     Target Surface Area: 6.2 x 6.4 = 39.68
     Bull’s Eye Surface Area: .325 x .325= .105625 x 3.14= .332
     Random probability of mating success (bull’s eye/target surface area) .332 / 39.68= .008 x 100= .8
     There is a .8% probability of random mating success.
     According to my geometric calculations, the female’s cloaca is only .8% of the total back side                                            surface area of the female. By chance alone, less than 1 dart would hit the bull’s eye.

Discussion
In my study, I found that unless the male is perfectly aware and able to mate, there is less than one chance in 100 that the male could find the cloaca, mount, and successfully inseminate the female with all its senses not available. The male increases that probability to a 100% mating success. For one, he’s not blind or deaf. He can smell her pheromones. He also courts her, so as to make the experience easier and painless. For one, the female only considers the largest and strongest male for her mate. The male will start courting the female by sniffing her cloaca, licking and grooming her face and body, and lying next to her, while howling and meowing. After the female has given her signal, the male will mount and inject his barbed penis into her cloaca. He releases his sperm and goes on his way, deserting the female. After mating, the female proceeds to roll around and lick her cloaca, helping the egg move to be fertilized.
After copulation and fertilization, the female can have one to seven kittens in a litter and spends all her time rearing them as she is the primary caretaker of her litter.

References

Diakow, Carol. "Effects of Genital Desensitization on Mating Behavior and Ovulation in the Female Cat." Effects of Genital Desensitization on Mating Behavior and Ovulation in the Female Cat. N.p., July 1971. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Hamner, C. E., L.L. Jennings, and N. J. Sojka. "Reproduction." CAT (FELIS CATUS L.) SPERMATOZOA REQUIRE CAPACITATION. N.p., 1 Dec. 1970. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Liberg, Olof. "Courtship Behavior and Sexual Selection in Domestic Cat." Applied Animal Behavior Science. N.p., 5 Aug. 1982. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

SCHEPER-HUGHES, NANCY. "Breading Breaks Out in the Eye of the Cat: Sex Roles, Birth Order, and the Irish Double-Blind." JSTOR. N.p., June-July 1979. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Syufi, Franny. "Cat Sex 101." About.com Cats. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

Yamane, Akihiro, Teruo Doi, and Yuiti Ono. "Mating Behaviors, Courtship Rank and Mating Success of Male Feral Cat (Felis Catus) - Springer." Mating Behaviors, Courtship Rank and Mating Success of Male Feral Cat (Felis Catus) - Springer. N.p., 01 June 1996. Web. 30 Oct. 2013.

180. Please watch!!

Blessed.

I feel a lot of the times that no one understands. But God does.
He understands everything. Every pain or confusion that I feel. And he feels it with me. He comforts me, even if I'm not aware of it.
So that's why I'm blessed. I'm so blessed to be able to worship my Lord freely and not be persecuted for it. I'm so blessed that I've been given a loving family (even though we never get along), and amazing friends. I'm blessed with an amazing boyfriend who also loves the Lord, and accepts and loves me the way I am. I'm blessed to be able to choose whatever school I'd like to go to.
I'm so blessed. And I could go on and on with this.
I've been studying a lot about faith lately, something that's been lacking in my life recently. But it's cool, because God keeps putting lessons in my life about it, helping, guiding, never letting go.
What amazes me, is that we as people have faith in a lot of things:

• Our brakes to work.
• Alarms to wake us up.
• On others, sometimes.

We have faith in materialistic things like this everyday. But how many of us have faith in GOD like we do these everyday things. That's not fair to us, and especially not our Lord.


I've had faith in a particular verse for a while now. Psalm 138:8 - The LORD will fulfill [his purpose] for me; your love, O LORD, endures forever--do not abandon the works of your hands.


The Lord will fulfill His purpose for me. I've accepted that I don't control my own life, God does, and that whatever happens, he has a plan. I have faith that he will keep me safe. So why can't I have trust in Him completely, fully.
I am blessed. 


Cause what if Your blessings come through raindrops?
What if Your healing comes through tears
What if a thousand sleepless nights
Are what it takes to know You’re near?
What if trials of this life
Are Your mercies in disguise?

You lift me up when I am weak
Your arms wrap around me
Your love catches me so I'm letting go

You lift me up when I can't see
You heart's all that I needYour love carries me so I'm letting go

Final Final presentation.

Lol.

Fine: This is the word i use at the end of any argument that i feel that i'm right about but need to shut you up. Never use fine to describe how a woman looks. This will cause you to have one of those arguements.

Five Minutes: This is half an hour. It is equivalent to the five minutes that your hockey game is going to last before you do whatever it is i want you to do.

Nothing: This means something. Be on your toes. Nothing is usually used to describe the feeling i have of wanting to rip your face off. Nothing usually signifies an arguement that will last five minutes and end with the word fine.

Go Ahead (With Raised Eyebrows): Translation: "I dare you." This will result in me getting mad over nothing and will end with the word fine.

Go Ahead (Normal Eyebrows): Translation: "I give up" or "Do what you want, I don't care." You will get a go ahead with raised eyebrows in just a few minutes, followed by nothing and fine. I will talk to you in about five minutes when i cool off.

Loud Sigh: This is not actually a word, but it is still a verbal statement misunderstood by men. A loud sigh means I thinkyou are a moron at the moment and wonders why i'm wasting my time arguing with you over nothing.

Soft Sigh: (Again, not a word, but you know...) I am content. Your best bet is not to talk or move or breathe and i will stay content.

Oh: This word followed by any statement is trouble. Example: "Oh, well, I just talked to him about what you were doing last night." If I say oh before any statement, run -- do not walk -- to the nearest exit.

That's Okay: This is one of the most dangerous statements a woman can say to a man. That's okay means that i want to think long and hard before repaying you for whatever it is that you did wrong. You do not want to be there when that happens.

Please Do: This is not a statement, it's an offer. i'm giving you the opportunity to come up with whatever lame excuse or reason you have for doing whatever it is you've done. You have a fair chance to tell the truth here. Be very careful and you shouldn't get a "that's okay."

Thanks: i'm thanking you. Don't feel faint, just say, "You're welcome."

Thanks a Lot: This longer phrase is not to be confused with thanks. I'll say "thanks a lot" when i'm actually seriously peeved at you. It signifies that you have hurt me in some callous way and will generally be followed by the loud sigh. Be careful not to ask what is wrong after the loud sigh, or i will say, "Nothing," and raise her eyebrows

..

She's the self-preserved, pretty-but-doesn't-know-it kind of girl, reading her books & day dreaming all day while he's the outgoing, spontaneous, gorgeous boy with the most amazing eyes you'll ever see. They grew up from two different worlds & he'll teach her how to stand up to those who look down to her & she'll teach him how to love & know the true meaning of jealousy, while he teaches her the same without knowing it. He'll teach her how to shout at the world without a wince because his hand is holding tightly around hers, letting her know he will never leave her, causing her to forget her fears for everything & just being able to live for once without a worry.

Sharks love me.

Roe v. Wade Research Paper.

Olivia Peters

May 20, 2011

English

Mrs. Curry

Roe v. Wade: What if this had not happened?

     The Roe v. Wade court case is what made abortion legal. Abortion is a surgical procedure in which an unborn child is willingly killed. Jane Roe, truthfully Norma McCorvey, was a woman trying to get an abortion. Henry Wade was the defendant in the case. Life before and after this case is very different in the terms of pregnancy and abortion. The Roe v. Wade court case is what made abortion legal. But what if it had gone the other way? Would the world still be the same?

     The Roe v. Wade court case made abortion legal. It created pro-life vs. pro-choice. It angered many people and it changed many people’s opinions on abortion, but what if Roe had not won?

     The terms “pro-life” and “pro-choice” usually get down to the question of whether people do or do not support abortion. The term “pro-life” says that the person believes that the government has the obligation to preserve all human life, not matter of intent, viability, or quality of life concerns. The term “pro-choice” is to believe that a person has unlimited self-governing with honor to their own reproductive systems as long as they honor the self-governing of others. It has   angered many of people, such as protesters. During the case, Chief Justice Burger and the majority of others were so angry that the draft was short (Deborah S. Romaine).

     Abortion being made legal changed many people’s views on the matter. Abortion is the most common surgical procedure nowadays, and that angers a lot of people (Nancy Tompkins).

      In the mid/late 1800s, states began passing laws to make abortion illegal. One of the reasons was the fear that population would be dominated by new immigrant children. But what if Roe had not won? Would abortion still be legal? People in ancient times were often overcome; amazed when gazing towards the night sky. “The vastness of what we see with our naked eye seems to dwarf our own locale by comparison.” King David mentioned this thousands of years ago:

LORD, our Lord,
   how majestic is your name in all the earth!

You have set your glory
   in the heavens.
Through the praise of children and infants
   you have established a stronghold against your enemies,
   to silence the foe and the avenger.

When I consider your heavens,
   the work of your fingers,
the moon and the stars,
   which you have set in place,

what is mankind that you are mindful of them,
   human beings that you care for them?

You have made them a little lower than the angels
   and crowned them with glory and honor (Psalm 8:1-5).

     If David was so awestruck by the heavens, why is the world not by the miracle of life? It’s much greater in comparison.

     Abortion affects the mother and child in many ways, such as physical and emotional. There are 6 different types of abortion: suctions, D&C (Dilation and Curettage), D&E (Dilation and Evacuation), salt poisoning, Hysterotomy, and Prostaglandin abortion.

     Suction, also called vacuum aspiration, is the most common form of abortion. In the procedure a suction tube is inserted through the dilated cervix into the womb. The vacuum tears the placenta from the uterus and dismembers the body of the child, sucking it into a jar. There is a risk that the uterus can be punctured during the procedure. Also, the abortionist must be careful as to remove all the fetal and placental tissue or infection and hemorrhage can occur.

     In D&C, usually performed between 7 and 12 weeks, the doctor puts a curette, a loop-shaped steel knife, into the womb. As the curette scrapes the wall of the uterus, the baby is cut into pieces. Bleeding is not much. As with suction, abortionist must reattach the pieces of the baby to make sure the uterus is clean. In D&E, similar to D&C, the abortionist must use forceps to grab the baby due to advanced development. The baby is again cut into pieces as the abortionist tears the body and placenta away from the uterus. Bleeding is extensive. The procedure is mostly safe for the mother, but most hospital staff and doctors refuse to do advanced D&E, because it is so devastating.

     Salt poisoning is the second most common method of inducing abortion. The doctor puts a long needle through the abdomen and injects a saline solution into the amniotic fluid surrounding the baby. The baby is killed by swallowing the salt and the skin is all burned away. It takes about an hour for the baby to die. After dead, the mother goes into labor and gives birth to the dead baby. Saline injections have been outlawed in some countries because it can cause lung and kidney damage if salt gets into the bloodstream. In some cases, babies have survived the “salting out” and have been born alive.

     A Hysterotomy is similar to a cesarean section whereas the baby is taken from the mother’s womb and is “allowed” to die by neglect or killed by voluntary act. This method is the highest risk to the mother and usually results in live births. It is only used in late term pregnancies and is sometimes used if salt poisoning or prostaglandin abortion has failed to complete. In prostaglandin abortion, a chemical hormone that induces violent labor and premature birth is injected into the amniotic sac. Since most prostaglandin births are live, salt and other toxins are injected first. The risk to the mother is greater when using prostaglandin and complications can even include cardiac arrest (ProChoice Home).

     There are also many emotional effects to the mother , such as becoming an alcoholic, hating life, being unable to “connect” with anyone, depression, medical problems, mood swings and eating disorders, panic disorders and promiscuity, and post-abortion syndrome (guilt, anxiety, “numbing”, depression, suicide, anniversary syndrome, re-experiencing the abortion, wanting to become pregnant again, anxiety over fertility issues, self-harm, and brief psychosis) (A Voice in the Wilderness).

     Now is abortion murder? Imagine feeling safe and secure and then seconds later, someone is killing you and you can’t get away or cry for help. Like fashion, the word “choice” is being substituted for abortion by using political framing. It’s telling women that their children are not worthy to be born.

     The Golden rule states simply, “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” If we apply this rule to that holiness of life, it means “I should refrain from committing murder if I want others to refrain from murdering me.” If someone were still in their mother’s womb, would they want to be murdered? (Sproul, 34)  

     “If people are fighting and hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman’s husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise.” (Exodus 21:22-25).

     “What is a fetus? The question is objective, not subjective. To determine the status of a fetus is not a matter of personal, arbitrary caprice. The fetus is either alive or not alive. The fetus is either human or not human. The fetus is either a person or not a person. What I think the fetus is does not determine which of these it actually is. If a fetus is a living person but I do not believe or think that it is a living person, my thoughts have no bearing on what the fetus actually is. By merely thinking or believing, I cannot change what is a person into a nonperson, what is loving into unloving, or what is human into nonhuman. By the same token, if the fetus is not a living person, then whatever I believe or think cannot change it into a living person.” (Sproul, 9).

      More frequently the question is not “Is it murder?” it’s usually “When is it murder?” Murder, in the way we as people define it, is intentionally killing another human (Civil Liberties). Therefore, abortion is murder because a fetus is just a scientific term for baby. A baby is still a baby whether or not it is inside the mother. “I think it’s safe to say that the entire abortion industry is based on a lie… I am dedicated to spending the rest of my life undoing the law that bears my name.” says Norma McCorvey (California Right 2 Life).

     Before Roe v. Wade, abortion was not legal. So, most abortions were “back-alley” abortions. Just years before abortion was legal, hospitals were full of women who had been hurt or become sick while getting an abortion, or others who had tried to perform the abortion on themselves. While some chose from “back-alley” abortionists, more often women chose homemade options such as; bleach douche or inserting sharp objects into their cervix. That is why the coat hanger became the symbol of the abortions rights movement.

     Some also traveled out of the country or to the few states where anti-abortion laws had been repealed. It required a lot of money though.

     After Roe v. Wade, there were abortion clinics all over the country. So all the hospital wards dedicated to helping the mishaps or the failed abortions were no longer needed.

     Roe, whose real name is Norma McCorvey, chose the fake name, Jane Roe, to protect her reputation. McCorvey was born in Simmesport, Louisiana, on September 22, 1947. She was raised in Houston, Texas. In 1963, at age 16, she married Woody McCorvey but said he was abusive towards her. She left him while pregnant with her first child, became pregnant again, and gave the child up for adoption. Then while living with her mother, Norma shared she was attracted to women. Her mother disowned her and took custody of Norma’s daughter. Norma had indeed become pregnant with her third child when two attorneys’ found her, Sarah Weddington and Linda Coffee. McCorvey claims that her attorneys simply used her to get back at the state for criminalizing abortion. All they really wanted was a plaintiff. They tried to convince McCorvey that her child was just a piece of tissue. That she just missed her period.

     Norma stated that she had very little involvement in the case. She signed the affidavit without reading it, was never invited to court, and found out the decision from the newspaper. The court decided on a 7-2 vote that it was violating a women’s liberty of the 14^th amendment to make abortion a crime. So how was Wade involved (Encyclopedia Brittanica)?

     Henry Wade was born on November 11, 1914 in Rockwall County, Texas. Along with 5 of his brothers, he entered the legal profession. In 1939, he joined the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). During World War II, Wade served in the U.S. Navy, participating in the invasions of the Philippines and Okinawa. Wade, being a lawyer participated in two of the most notable U.S. court cases in the 20^th century, the prosecution of Jack Ruby, and the U.S. Supreme Court legalizing abortion. The people came to the conclusion that the law against abortion was unconstitutional because it deprived a woman of “fundamental rights” to choose whether and when to bear a child (Brief of Appellee).

     Before and after abortion was legalized, life remained the same in a way, though it was also drastically changed. Before Roe v. Wade, abortion was not a crime and was common in the U.S. during the 1700s and 1800s. During this time, striking a pregnant woman’s stomach or placing foreign tools into the uterus to induce abortion, and it quite often killed the woman. In the mid-1800s, laws passed around the country to prohibit abortion at any time during the pregnancy. “Back-alley” abortions were still very much available. Through the next century though, about 50 percent of all maternal deaths resulted from illegal abortions during the early 1900s. “A high regard for human life is not the exclusive legacy of Christianity or other religious faiths. In the natural law arising in many cultures, in belief systems, and in nature itself, we find a persistent devotion to the sanctity of life.” So why people not preserving that holy right to life (Sproul, 33)?

     Today, after Roe v. Wade, legal abortion has earned credit with bringing down maternal death rates. Abortion is now one of the most common clinical procedures. Each year, half of all pregnancies in the U.S. are unplanned and half of all those are terminated. So, since 1977, there have been over 59,000 acts of violence at U.S. abortion clinics, including 7 murders, 41 bombings, 343 death threats, and 942 acts of vandalism (Before and After Roe).

     But what if Roe had not won? We would probably go back to the way life was before the case. We would go back to the “back-alley” abortions; the population would most likely stay the same due to the abortions still taking place. There would definitely be another case because the Roe v. Wade has already been revisited so many times. But would there be more special children? So many STD’s are coming up now, so if they could not terminate the pregnancy, then that disease could be passed to the child. They could suffer from low birth weight, conjunctivitis, pneumonia, neonatal sepsis (infection of baby’s blood), neurologic damage, nepatitis, meningitis, liver disease, and even being stillborn.

     So, sadly, abortion was made legal by the Roe v. Wade case. Abortion is a horrible way of ending a child’s life, and is easily accessible to anyone nowadays. The case turned out in Roe’s favor, who actually never received an abortion, but put the child up for adoption.

     Life would probably remain the same if Roe had won, because people still do not obey the law. 

Works Cited

"Before and After Roe." National Organization for Women (NOW). Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.now.org/issues/abortion/roe30/beforeafter.html>.

"Brief for Appellee." Encyclopedia.com. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Brief_for_Appellee.aspx>.

Head, Tom. "Rights of the Fetus - Does the Fetus Have Rights." Civil Liberties at About.com - Your Guide to Civil Liberties News and Issues. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://civilliberty.about.com/od/abortion/p/fetus_rights.htm>.

Holy Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007. Print.

"Prochoice.com | Abortion... How Is It Performed?" ProChoice Home. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.pro-choice.com/abort_how.html>.

"Roe v. Wade Report." California Right To Life. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.calright2life.org/RoevWade.htm>.

"Roe vs. Wade." Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.school.eb.com/eb/article-9125053?>.

Romaine, Deborah S. Roe v. Wade: Abortion and the Supreme Court. San Diego, CA: Lucent, 1998. Print.

Sproul, R. C. Abortion: a Rational Look at an Emotional Issue. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Pub., 2010. Print.

Tompkins, Nancy. Roe v. Wade The Fight over Life and Liberty. New York: Franklin Watts, 1996. Print.

"VW: Matters of Life (Roe v Wade)." A Voice in the Wilderness - Oasis of Biblical Truth. Web. 30 Apr. 2011. <http://www.a-voice.org/main/mat-life.html>.

  Blogger would not let me fix the font or the color of the verse to match the rest of the text. I'm sorry Mrs. Curry.